Semantic classes

By their meaning all nouns create two semantic groups – classes:

• human being
• thing

All nouns which belong to the class of human being (surnames, names, professions, ethnic identities and so on) are addressed by the questions хэт? and хэта́? (who?) For example: Паранук, Аутлев, Хунагов (surnames), Ибрагим (name), пхъаш1э "carpenter", адыг "Circassian", татарин "Tatar" and others.

All the other nouns (all creatures except human being, and all objects of inanimate nature) belong to the class of thing. These nouns are addressed by the questions сыд? and сыда́? (what?) For example: мэлы́ "sheep", тхьачэ́т "turkey cock", чъыгы́ "tree", шъофы́ "field" and so on.

Singular and plural

A Circassian noun can be in one of the following two states:

• singular
• plural

Singular nouns have zero morpheme, while plural nouns use the additional хэ morpheme, which is attached to the main form of the word. For example: singular: унэ́ "home", тхылъ "book", plural: унэ-хэ́-р "homes", тхылъ-хэ́-р "books".

By the way, not only Circassian nouns have special plural forms. Unlike English verbs, Circassian verbs use -х- or -а- morphemes to form their plural versions. The second morpheme is attached to the verb in front of the verb's root, and the first is attached after it. For example: ар мак1о "he is going", ахэр мак1о́-х "they are going"; ащ ы1уа́гъ "he said", ахэмэ́ а-1уа́гъ "they said".

Gender

The Circassian language has no such grammatical category as gender. Therefore, like in the modern English language, nouns are not separated according to this classification, or they can be considered as belonging to one common group of neutral gender.

Definite and indefinite forms

Circassian nouns usually have either definite or indefinite form. The idea behind this conception is close to the idea of definite/indefinite articles in English. Definite form of Circassian nouns has -р or -м formants at the end of the word. For example: к1алэ "boy" – indefinite noun (has none of the definite formants) - it is used in generalizations or when the boy is unknown to either the "speaker" or "listener" (a/an or zero article in English); к1алэ́р, к1алэ́м "the boy" – it is used when the mentioned boy is well known to both the "speaker" and "listener".

Possessive cases

Possessive cases are one of the most important grammatical characteristics of nouns in the Circassian language. There are two (in some versions of the Circassian grammar there is third form, called "cognate", which is somewhere between the two mentioned below) main forms of possessive cases:

• organic
• proprietary

Organic form

Singular Circassian nouns of the organic form are expressed by the following prefixes:

• с- or сы- (first person): с-шъхьэ "my head", сы́-гу "my heart";
• у-, п- (second person): у-нэ́ "your eye", п-лъакъо́ "your leg", п-1э "your hand";
• ы- (third person): ы-шы "his brother", ы́-пхъу "his daughter", ы́-къу "his son".

Plural nouns have these prefixes:

• ты-, т- (first person): ты-нэхэ́р "our eyes", т-шъхьэхэ́р "our heads", т-1эбжъанэхэ́р "our legs";
• шъу- (second person): шъу-лъакъохэ́р "your legs", шъу-шъхьацыхэ́р "your hair";
• а- (third person): а́-гу "their heats", а-лъа́къу "their legs".

Proprietary form

Singular Circassian nouns of the proprietary form are expressed by the following prefixes:

• си- (first person): си-тхы́лъ "my book";
• уи- (second person): уи-тхы́лъ "your book";
• и- (third person): и-тхы́лъ "his book".

Plural nouns have these prefixes:

• ти- (first person): ти-у́н "our home";
• шъуи- (second person): шъуи-у́н "your home";
• я- (third person): я-у́н "their home".

Cases

There are four (in some versions of the Circassian grammar up to seven) cases in the Circassian language. They are:

• nominative
• ergative
• instrumental
• translative

The nominative case of a definite noun is marked by the affix -р both in the singular and plural forms. For example: пхъаш1э́ "carpenter": singular: пхъаш1э́-р, plural: пхъаш1э-хэ́-р. Пхъаш1э́р 1офыш1э́ къэк1уа́гъ "The carpenter has come for work".

A noun in the ergative case is marked by the affix -м. For example: singular - л1ы-м "man", бзылъфыгъэ́-м "woman"; plural - л1ы-хэ́-м, бзылъфыгъэ-хэ́-м. Л1ым ытхы́гъ письмэ́ "The man has written a letter".

The instrumental case has the following expressions:

• indefinite nouns are marked by the affix -к1э : тхылъ-к1э́, "by/with book", 1э-к1э́ "by/with hand" and so on.
• definite nouns express this case using the ergative affix -м in conjunction with the affix -к1э: уатэ-м-к1э́ "by/with the hammer", дыды-м-к1э́ "by/with the awl".

Пхъаш1э́м уатэмк1э́ гъуч1ы1унэ́р пхъмэбгъу́м хи1у́гъ "The carpenter has driven in the nail into the plank with the hammer".

The translative case is marked by the affix -у (-эу) : singular - л1ыжъ-э́у "old man", к1алэ́-у "boy"; plural -  л1ыжъ-х-э́у "old men"; к1алэ-хэ́-у "boys". Л1ыжъэ́у щысы́р сэ дэгъо́у сэ́ш1э "The-old-man-who is sitting (there) is very well known to me".

Here are examples of the case forms for the following nouns: нысэ́ "daughter-in-law", мэлы́ "sheep", ощы́ "ax":

Meanings and constructions of the Circassian cases

The nominative case usually expresses subject in conjunction with intransitive verbs or direct object in conjunction with transitive verbs: For example:

• К1алэ́р школы́м к1уагъэ́ "The boy went to school". - К1алэр is in the nominative case, it points to the subject (the boy), and the sentence is in the nominative form with an intransitive verb (к1уагъэ);
• Бзылъфыгъэ́м унэ́р егъа́лэ "The woman is whitewashing the house". - унэр is in the nominative case, it points to the direct object (the house which is being whitewashed), and the sentence is in the ergative form (after the form of its subject - Бзылъфыгъэ́м ) with a transitive verb (егъа́лэ).

The ergative case has the following functions:

• as subject in conjunction with transitive verbs. For example: Писа́телым тхылъ ытхы́гъ "The writer has written a book" (Писа́телым – ergative noun, ытхы́гъ – transitive verb);
• as indirect object with both transitive and intransitive verbs. For example: Ар нэбгъузк1э к1алэм еплъыгъ "He looked askance at the boy" (к1алэм - indirect object);
• as adverbial modifier. For example: Студе́нтхэм мафэ́м 1оф аш1а́гъ "The students have worked during the day" (мафэ́м – adverbial modifier of time); К1алэхэ́р мэзы́м к1уагъэ́х "The boys went to the forest" (мэзы́м – adverbial modifier of place).

The instrumental case expresses indirect object; instrument, direction or purpose of action. For example:

• Тыгъужъы́р бжыхьэ́м былымхэмк1э́ бзаджэ́ "During autumn the wolf is dangerous for the cattle." (былымхэмк1э́ - indirect object);
• Чъыгэ́р ощымк1э́ раупк1ы́гъ "The tree has been cut down by the ax" (ощымк1э́ - instrument of action);
• Къыблэмк1э́ жьыбгъэ́р къэк1ыщтыгъэ́ "The wind has blown from the south" (Къыблэмк1э́ - direction of action).

The translative case usually expresses a transition into something, or definition (clarification, which often works like the English words -which, -who, -that... ) of a name. It points to the real (literal, not grammatical) subject in the sentence. For example:

• Сэфэ́р офице́рэу дзэм къик1ыжъы́гъ "Sefer has returned from the army as an officer" (офице́рэу – transition from a private. Literally: officer has returned; grammatically: Sefer has returned);
• А мафэ́р тхьаумафэ́у къыч1эк1ы́гъ "That day turned out to be Sunday" (тхьаумафэ́у  - clarification. Literally: Sunday came out; grammatically: That day turned out).
• Л1ыжъэу щысыгъэр к1ожьыгъэ "The-old-man-who had sat there, left". Grammatically the sentence looks like that: Л1ыжъэу (who-was-an-old-man)  щысыгъэр (the-one-who-had-sat)  къыч1эк1ы́гъ (left). Л1ыжъэу in this sentence is the who-clarification type of the translative case. Grammatically щысыгъэр is the subject (this is normal for all Circassian verbs, except for the active present verbs), but literally: The old man left. So, л1ыжъэу - is the literal subject here.
• К1элэеджак1оу Пэнэшъур къэсымэджагъ "The-pupil-whose-surname-is Panesh has fallen ill". This is the who-definition type of the translative case.

Word formation

Сomposition and suffixation are the most typical ways to form Circassian nouns. There are different ways of composing words, for example: мэзчэ́т (мэз "forest", чэт "chicken"), псычэ́т (псы "water", чэт "chicken", duck), мэкъумэ́щ "agriculture" (мэкъу "hay", мэщы́ "millet"), шхап1э́ "cafeteria" (шхэн "eat", п1э "place").

The following suffixes are used to form Circassian nouns:

• -гъ (э): ц1ыфы́гъ "humanity" (from ц1ыфы́ "human");
• -к1э: зек1уак1э́ "behavior", к1уак1э́ "gait";
• -гъу: нэплъэ́гъу "glance, look", уцо́гъу "pal";
• -щ: хьак1э́щ "sitting-room" (from хьак1э́ "guest"), чэмэ́щ "cowshed" (from чэмы́ "cow");
• -лъ: щыгъу́лъ "saltcellar" (from щыгъу "salt"), дэгъа́лъ "vessel for oil" (from дагъэ́ "oil");
• -к1у: еджа́к1у "student" (from еджэ́н "study, read"), хэта́к1у "hobo" (from хэты́н "to roam") and others.